Introduction to R

Creating objects in R

You can get output from R simply by typing math in the console:

3 + 5
12 / 7

However, to do useful and interesting things, we need to assign values to objects. To create an object, we need to give it a name followed by the assignment operator <-, and the value we want to give it:

weight_kg <- 55

<- is the assignment operator. It assigns values on the right to objects on the left. So, after executing x <- 3, the value of x is 3. The arrow can be read as 3 goes into x. For historical reasons, you can also use = for assignments, but not in every context. Because of the slight differences in syntax, it is good practice to always use <- for assignments.

In RStudio, typing Alt + - (push Alt at the same time as the - key) will write <- in a single keystroke.

Guidelines for naming Objects:

• Objects can be given any name such as x, current_temperature, or subject_id. You want your object names to be explicit and not too long.

• Object names cannot start with a number (2x is not valid, but x2 is).

• R is case sensitive (e.g., weight_kg is different from Weight_kg).

• There are some names that cannot be used because they are the names of fundamental functions in R (e.g., if, else, for, see here for a complete list).

• In general, even if it’s allowed, it’s best to not use other function names (e.g., c, T, mean, data, df, weights). If in doubt, check the help to see if the name is already in use.

• It’s also best to avoid dots (.) within a variable name as in my.dataset. There are many functions in R with dots in their names for historical reasons, but because dots have a special meaning in R (for methods) and other programming languages, it’s best to avoid them.

• It is also recommended to use nouns for variable names, and verbs for function names.

It’s important to be consistent in the styling of your code (where you put spaces, how you name variables, etc.). Using a consistent coding style makes your code clearer to read for your future self and your collaborators. In R, two popular style guides are Hadley Wickham’s and Google’s (this one is also comprehensive).

When assigning a value to an object, R does not print anything. You can force R to print the value by using parentheses or by typing the object name:

weight_kg <- 55    # doesn't print anything
(weight_kg <- 55)  # but putting parenthesis around the call prints the value of `weight_kg`
weight_kg          # and so does typing the name of the object

Now that R has weight_kg in memory, we can do arithmetic with it. For instance, we may want to convert this weight into pounds (weight in pounds is 2.2 times the weight in kg):

2.2 * weight_kg

We can also change a variable’s value by assigning it a new one:

weight_kg <- 57.5
2.2 * weight_kg

This means that assigning a value to one variable does not change the values of other variables. For example, let’s store the animal’s weight in pounds in a new variable, weight_lb:

weight_lb <- 2.2 * weight_kg

and then change weight_kg to 100.

weight_kg <- 100

What do you think is the current content of the object weight_lb? 126.5 or 220?

b <- sqrt(a)

round(3.14159)

#> [1] 3

args(round)

#> function (x, digits = 0) 
#> NULL

?round

round(3.14159, digits = 2)

#> [1] 3.14

round(3.14159, 2)

#> [1] 3.14

round(digits = 2, x = 3.14159)

#> [1] 3.14

Vectors and data types

A vector is the most common and basic data type in R, and is pretty much the workhorse of R. A vector is composed by a series of values, which can be either numbers or characters. We can assign a series of values to a vector using the c() function. For example we can create a vector of animal weights and assign it to a new object weight_g:

weight_g <- c(50, 60, 65, 82)
weight_g

A vector can also contain characters:

animals <- c("mouse", "rat", "dog")
animals

The quotes around “mouse”, “rat”, etc. are essential here. Without the quotes R will assume there are objects called mouse, rat and dog. As these objects don’t exist in R’s memory, there will be an error message.

There are many functions that allow you to inspect the content of a vector. length() tells you how many elements are in a particular vector:

length(weight_g)
length(animals)

An important feature of a vector, is that all of the elements are the same type of data. The function class() indicates the class (the type of element) of an object:

class(weight_g)
class(animals)

The function str() provides an overview of the structure of an object and its elements. It is a useful function when working with large and complex objects:

str(weight_g)
str(animals)

You can use the c() function to add other elements to your vector:

weight_g <- c(weight_g, 90) # add to the end of the vector
weight_g <- c(30, weight_g) # add to the beginning of the vector
weight_g

In the first line, we take the original vector weight_g, add the value 90 to the end of it, and save the result back into weight_g. Then we add the value 30 to the beginning, again saving the result back into weight_g.

We can do this over and over again to grow a vector, or assemble a dataset. As we program, this may be useful to add results that we are collecting or calculating.

We just saw 2 of the 6 main atomic vector types (or data types) that R uses: "character" and "numeric". These are the basic building blocks that all R objects are built from. The other 4 are:

• "logical" for TRUE and FALSE (the boolean data type)
• "integer" for integer numbers (e.g., 2L, the L indicates to R that it’s an integer)
• "complex" to represent complex numbers with real and imaginary parts (e.g., 1 + 4i) and that’s all we’re going to say about them
• "raw" that we won’t discuss further

Vectors are one of the many data structures that R uses. Other important ones are lists (list), matrices (matrix), data frames (data.frame), factors (factor) and arrays (array).

Challenge

• We’ve seen that atomic vectors can be of type character, numeric, integer, and logical. But what happens if we try to mix these types in a single vector?

• What will happen in each of these examples? (hint: use class() to check the data type of your objects):

  num_char <- c(1, 2, 3, 'a')
  num_logical <- c(1, 2, 3, TRUE)
  char_logical <- c('a', 'b', 'c', TRUE)
  tricky <- c(1, 2, 3, '4')

• Why do you think it happens?

• You’ve probably noticed that objects of different types get converted into a single, shared type within a vector. In R, we call converting objects from one class into another class coercion. These conversions happen according to a hierarchy, whereby some types get preferentially coerced into other types. Can you draw a diagram that represents the hierarchy of how these data types are coerced?

Subsetting vectors

If we want to extract one or several values from a vector, we must provide one or several indices in square brackets. For instance:

animals <- c("mouse", "rat", "dog", "cat")
animals[2]

#> [1] "rat"

animals[c(3, 2)]

#> [1] "dog" "rat"

We can also repeat the indices to create an object with more elements than the original one:

more_animals <- animals[c(1, 2, 3, 2, 1, 4)]
more_animals

#> [1] "mouse" "rat"   "dog"   "rat"   "mouse" "cat"

R indices start at 1. Programming languages like Fortran, MATLAB, Julia, and R start counting at 1, because that’s what human beings typically do. Languages in the C family (including C++, Java, Perl, and Python) count from 0 because that’s simpler for computers to do.

weight_g <- c(21, 34, 39, 54, 55)
weight_g[c(TRUE, FALSE, TRUE, TRUE, FALSE)]

#> [1] 21 39 54

weight_g > 50    # will return logicals with TRUE for the indices that meet the condition

#> [1] FALSE FALSE FALSE  TRUE  TRUE

## so we can use this to select only the values above 50
weight_g[weight_g > 50]

#> [1] 54 55

weight_g[weight_g < 30 | weight_g > 50]

#> [1] 21 54 55

weight_g[weight_g >= 30 & weight_g == 21]

#> numeric(0)

animals <- c("mouse", "rat", "dog", "cat")
animals[animals == "cat" | animals == "rat"] # returns both rat and cat

#> [1] "rat" "cat"

animals %in% c("rat", "cat", "dog", "duck", "goat")

#> [1] FALSE  TRUE  TRUE  TRUE

animals[animals %in% c("rat", "cat", "dog", "duck", "goat")]

#> [1] "rat" "dog" "cat"

Missing data

As R was designed to analyze datasets, it includes the concept of missing data (which is uncommon in other programming languages). Missing data are represented in vectors as NA.

When doing operations on numbers, most functions will return NA if the data you are working with include missing values. This feature makes it harder to overlook the cases where you are dealing with missing data. You can add the argument na.rm=TRUE to calculate the result while ignoring the missing values.

heights <- c(2, 4, 4, NA, 6)
mean(heights)
max(heights)
mean(heights, na.rm = TRUE)
max(heights, na.rm = TRUE)

If your data include missing values, you may want to become familiar with the functions is.na(), na.omit(), and complete.cases(). See below for examples.

## Extract those elements which are not missing values.
heights[!is.na(heights)]

## Returns the object with incomplete cases removed. The returned object is atomic.
na.omit(heights)

## Extract those elements which are complete cases.
heights[complete.cases(heights)]

Challenge

1. Using this vector of length measurements, create a new vector with the NAs removed.

   lengths <- c(10,24,NA,18,NA,20)

2. Use the function median() to calculate the median of the lengths vector.

Now that we have learned how to write scripts, and the basics of R’s data structures, we are ready to start working with the Portal dataset we have been using in the other lessons, and learn about data frames.